Trafficking in Persons: Towards an Inclusive Paradigm
by A.K.M. Masud Ali, Bangladesh
All the research reports so far conclude that trafficking in children is increasing at an alarming rate. However, in the absence of baseline data and because of its illusive nature, authentic statistics regarding the magnitude of the problem are not available. Estimation of the spread of the problem is further complicated by the fact that the crime often goes unreported and even if reported, there is lack of follow-up data regarding recovery and sometimes the incidents of missing children are not taken into account while dealing with trafficking. It is also difficult to estimate the span of criminal networks working in and outside the country.
In Bangladesh women and children are falling victim to trafficking mainly for the purpose of prostitution, sexual abuse, forced labor, camel jockeying, cheap labor, bonded labor, domestic servitude, selling of organs and marriage. In case of women and girls, the destination is usually the sex-market both within the country and outside. In the case of boys, the destination is usually Middle Eastern countries where they are engaged as camel jockeys. In most cases the girls, who are trafficked abroad, are trafficked to India. In case of the boys, India is usually treated as a country of transit to the Middle East. On the other hand, within the country, an alarming number of boys and girls are forcefully engaged in prostitution. The girls are engaged both in brothels and the street sex-market, while the boys are almost exclusively engaged in the street sex market.
Men are also trafficked, however, the issue of trafficked men is almost absent in the literature on trafficking in Bangladesh. So far men are predominantly seen as “migrants” while women and children are typically seen as being “victims of trafficking” reflecting a strong gender bias in mainstream literature on trafficking.
The present paper would like to stress on the fact that the new paradigm of thinking on trafficking in Bangladesh recognizes the phenomenon of trafficking in men, identifies distinctions and interfaces between trafficking and migration and indicates the need for analyzing the concept of trafficking both from the supply and demand sides. The paper presents challenges in research on trafficking in persons as well as lessons learned over the years.
The findings and analysis are based on data of presently available literature on trafficking in Bangladesh.
A Rapid Assessment on Trafficking in Children for Labor and Sexual Exploitation in Pakistan
by Shahbaz Bokhari, Saba Gul Khattak, Kiran Ahmed, Kiran Habib, Pakistan
The purpose of this paper is to understand the issue of trafficking of children from Pakistan in all its dimensions, starting with the process of initial contact for recruitment to the destination point. Specifically, we look at the trafficking of children for camel jockey work, sex work and dancing. It also gives an in-depth understanding of the causes, magnitude and inter-linkages of trafficking. It asserts that poverty is a leading cause of trafficking and that child trafficking has to be seen within the larger context of globalization. This paper attempts to cover vulnerable communities in selected sites of all the four provinces of Pakistan. It is based on a variety of quantitative and qualitative methods
The complex issue of the magnitude of internal and external trafficking has been discussed by citing different national and international reports and newspaper clippings. There is detailed information on the constantly changing strategies adopted by agents as well as different routes and networks of trafficking over time, and the reasons for this change. This elaborates the process of recruitment, documentation, travel and work arrangements for all the three sectors e.g., camel racing, sex work and dancing. This paper also pertains to information on vulnerable and trafficked children. It looks at their current level of education, desire to complete education and future plans as well as the child victim’s nature of work and earnings.
Recommendations formed on the basis of the findings of the study are highlighted as well. These encompass measures for government agencies in their vertical and horizontal contexts (line departments and local, provincial and federal government), INGOs, NGOs and donors. This emphasizes the introduction of pro-poor policies as well as implementation of laws and the need to address the constantly changing forms of trafficking. Since advocacy is an important tool for the eradication of trafficking, a table for advocacy measures has been included that lists the different stakeholders who can help combat child trafficking. In addition, it is believed that trafficking is not a single-country issue; it has to be addressed regionally and internationally.
Trafficking in Persons: An Analysis of Afghanistan
by Tristan Burnett, Afghanistan
Trafficking in human beings is a global problem, with an estimated 800,000 to 900,000 people trafficked across international borders each year and an untold many trafficked within their own countries. Unfortunately, Afghanistan is confronted with a significant trafficking problem, as recognized by the June 2002 “Declaration of the Essential Rights of Afghan Women,” which highlighted trafficking victims in its first section. Afghanistan was also identified in the 2002 U.S. Department of State “Trafficking in Persons” (TIP) report as a Tier III country – meaning that significant trafficking takes place and that the Government has not undertaken appropriate initiatives to combat the problem. This categorization could, under normal circumstances, make Afghanistan liable for a range of U.S. sanctions, but the 2003 TIP report has placed Afghanistan in a special category of transitional states.
Although this new, special category is certainly a fair exception given the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan’s (TISA) array of challenges, it highlights rather than diminishes the pressing human rights problem of trafficking in Afghanistan.
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) has substantial experience in the sensitive fields of anti-trafficking research and programming. With funding from the U.S. Department of State Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons and with the approval and support from the TISA, including the Ministry of Women’s Affairs and the Ministry of the Interior, IOM has conducted a study to assess the trends and responses to trafficking in Afghanistan.
Researching trafficking in any country is a difficult enterprise, but it is especially so in Afghanistan. Not only has general insecurity made some parts of the country practically inaccessible to the research team, but Afghans have deep rooted disinclinations to report trafficking crimes. Police forces are sometimes seen to be complicit in these crimes and, more importantly, trafficking and crimes of sexual violence are seen to dishonour the victim and her or his family rather than the perpetrator, making reporting of these crimes seem to some as a second violation. Despite these obstacles, a combined approach of written survey forms, structured interviews, case studies, and a literature review have produced a substantial body of information about trafficking in Afghanistan, ranging from specific and verified cases to credible but unverified cases to information about general trends and cultural contexts.
Based on these specific cases and trends and employing the legal framework of the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, which supplements the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, IOM believes that the following forms of trafficking are taking place:
- Exploitation of Prostitution (forced prostitution and prostitution of minors);
- Forced Labour;
- Slavery and Practices similar to Slavery (abductions for forced marriage, marriage for debt relief, and exchange of women for dispute settlement);
- Servitude (sexual servitude and domestic servitude); and,
- Removal of Organs.
Although the bulk of information on trafficking received is internal and among Afghans in neighbouring countries, there have also been cases of cross-border trafficking – Afghanistan as a country of origin, transit, and destination.
This report documents examples of many forms of trafficking (with the exception of the last, for which further technical research is required). A range of “trafficking-related” trends is also documented. Though these incidents may not constitute “trafficking” as defined in the “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children,” they still raise serious human rights concerns and share many causes and possible counter measures with more traditional trafficking practices. This report also explores the legal, social, economic, and security environment to establish how trafficking has taken root and to point to early recommendations for addressing the problem.
Afghan trafficking victims are drawn from the most vulnerable communities. Displaced, destitute, and indebted persons and families, young people seeking economic opportunity abroad, and rural women are all targets for trafficking crimes. Afghanistan’s chronic insecurity, massive displacement, and poverty born of conflict and drought contribute to making many people vulnerable to this kind of exploitation. The role of women and girls as objects for dispute resolution, the power of local assemblies which often apply customary rather than constitutional (or Islamic) law, and the limited autonomy of women in marriage decisions, are additional factors that contribute to trafficking and make it difficult to combat.
The TISA and the international community have taken some steps already. TISA has participated in regional anti-trafficking conferences, ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and begun legal reforms that might address some of the institutions that now enable trafficking crimes. Several institutions have also executed monitoring functions, and the Bonn-mandated Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) has included trafficking violations in their list of core concerns. In addition, the UN Assistance Mission for Afghanistan (UNAMA) and UN specialized agencies have addressed trafficking cases on an individual basis.
IOM further recommends action in the following areas:
- Legislation. Create a legal framework ranging from a constitutional prohibition on slavery to laws enforcing the various international agreements to which Afghanistan is a signatory to laws protecting women from the most extreme versions of customary justice.
- Coordination and dialogue. Coordinate both within the TISA and with regional partners to develop and implement a national action plan.
- Education and awareness. Manage education and outreach regarding trafficking in persons to target Government officials, traditional leaders and members of the community, paying special attention to decreasing the stigmatisation of victims.
- Push factors. Ensure that programmes to reduce economic insecurity, including training and education, micro-credit, and food security take into account trafficking risk factors in selecting beneficiaries.
- Security. Include trafficking issues in security sector reform programmes such as the Afghan New Beginnings Programme.
- Protection. Strengthen and sensitise the police and courts to address all forms of trafficking and sexual violence. Re-examine cases in which persons now held in jail may in fact be the victims of trafficking.
- Assistance. Work with traditional leaders to provide culturally appropriate support mechanisms for victims. Provide a mechanism to file complaints about past violations.
The problem of trafficking in Afghanistan is deeply intertwined with the country’s other problems as it emerges from decades of lawlessness. As such, there can be no easy or fast solutions to these disturbing human rights abuses, but measures can be taken to begin to combat trafficking. As the Government of Afghanistan grows stronger and more effective, anti-trafficking measures can also evolve to provide broader protection to victims and ensure that its perpetrators are brought to justice.
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